A practical reference on pentadecapeptide: what it is, how it behaves, what the literature reports, and where the honest uncertainties sit.
This page was last updated on 2026-02-20 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
BPC-157 is a synthetic fifteen-amino-acid peptide whose sequence is GEPPPGKPADDAGLV. Its name derives from the phrase body protection compound, a term applied to a protein fraction originally detected in human gastric juice. The short peptide is not that full protein; it corresponds to a stable fragment of the larger molecule. Researchers frequently describe it as a pentadecapeptide because it contains exactly fifteen residues. Its neutral molecular mass is approximately 1419 daltons.
The sequence places several glycine and proline residues near the middle, which may influence how the chain folds in solution. The peptide is linear rather than cyclic, and it carries no disulfide bridges. Commercial material is commonly supplied as the acetate salt, although the free base and other counterion forms also appear. Because the term BPC-157 refers to a specific sequence, samples with slight sequence variants are chemically different substances. Published work generally treats the fifteen-residue sequence as the defining structure.
BPC-157 is a synthetic pentadecapeptide, meaning it consists of fifteen amino acids joined in a single chain. Its sequence is Gly-Glu-Pro-Pro-Pro-Gly-Lys-Pro-Ala-Asp-Asp-Ala-Gly-Leu-Val, a fragment corresponding to part of a larger protein found in human gastric juice. The peptide was first described in the 1990s by researchers in Zagreb who were studying gastric protective factors. It is not a naturally circulating hormone; it is a laboratory-made fragment derived from a stomach protein. The name is an abbreviation of body protection compound, with the number referring to the fragment's position in the source protein.
Most published work on BPC-157 comes from animal experiments rather than controlled human trials. Rodent models have examined its effects on gastrointestinal lesions, tendon and ligament injury, and blood vessel formation. These studies are often small and originate from a limited number of research groups, which affects how broadly the findings can be generalized. No large randomized human trial has been reported in the peer-reviewed literature. Discussion of the compound therefore rests largely on preclinical data, and questions about its effects in people remain open rather than settled.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular formula | C62H98N16O22 | Approximate, for sequence GEPPPGKPADDAGLV |
| Molecular mass | ~1419 Da | Neutral form |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilized solid |
| Solubility | Soluble in water | Also soluble in aqueous buffers |
| Typical storage | -20 C | Dry powder, protected from moisture |
Most published findings come from rodent models, where the peptide has been examined in wound-healing, gastrointestinal-lesion, tendon, and vascular-injury preparations. A smaller number of early human studies have been reported, chiefly in inflammatory bowel conditions, but the public record is short and has not led to marketing approval in the United States or the European Union. Reviewers therefore classify the compound as investigational, and whether animal results carry over to people remains an open question rather than a settled one.
Outside laboratory supply channels, the peptide is sold as a research chemical, a category that carries no requirement to demonstrate purity, identity, or freedom from contamination. Because it is not an approved medicine, products labeled BPC-157 sit in a regulatory gap in many countries, and actual content may differ from the label. Sports organizations list it among prohibited substances, so its presence in an athlete's sample can produce a doping finding regardless of how the material was obtained.
Terminology in the literature is not fully standardised. Papers and product listings use BPC-157, BPC 157, and the longer phrase stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 interchangeably, and synonyms such as bepecin or PL 14736 appear in older or company-linked publications. Purity claims and reported masses can also differ between sources because peptide preparations may include counterions, residual solvents, or bound water. This variability complicates direct comparison of results across studies and makes the exact identity and grade of a given sample worth verifying. Discussions of the compound should therefore specify the source, salt form, and stated purity where those are known.
BPC-157 is a synthetic peptide composed of fifteen amino acid residues, with the sequence Gly-Glu-Pro-Pro-Pro-Gly-Lys-Pro-Ala-Asp-Asp-Ala-Gly-Leu-Val. Its name derives from body protection compound, a term used for a protein fraction identified in human gastric juice. Researchers in Zagreb first reported the pentadecapeptide in the early 1990s and described it as a stable fragment of that larger protein. The compound is also catalogued as PL 14736 and, in some commercial contexts, as bepecin. Its molecular formula is C62H98N16O22 and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 1419 daltons.
Most published work on BPC-157 consists of preclinical studies, including rodent models of tissue injury, gastrointestinal lesions, and vascular or tendon damage, together with in vitro cell assays. Reviews frequently note that the mechanisms proposed in these papers remain incompletely characterised and that findings have not been confirmed in large randomised human trials. The compound is widely sold as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine, and labels commonly carry a statement that it is not for human use. Whether any of the reported animal effects translate to humans is an open question rather than an established result.
=== Discontinued development === On August 18 and September 12, 2014, Oncothyreon and Merck KGaA, respectively, reported that a randomized Phase 1/2 study, EMR 63325–009, of tecemotide compared to a placebo in Japanese patients with Stage III non-small cell lung cancer did not meet its primary endpoint of an improvement in overall survival, and no treatment effect was seen in any of the secondary endpoints (progression-free survival, time to progression, or time to failure). Merck made the recommendation to stop the investigational treatment of patients in the EMR 63325-009 study in Japan. Furthermore, Merck KGaA announced its decision to discontinue the Phase III START2 and INSPIRE studies, and all other Merck-sponsored clinical trials with tecemotide in NSCLC, worldwide. Merck will continue to supply tecemotide for ongoing investigator-sponsored trials in other indications in accordance with their agreements with the sponsors of these studies.
Zhang's tactics included propaganda, intelligence-gathering, and involvement in the opium trade, while Liu fought back with counter-propaganda and appointing loyalist magistrates who frustrated Zhang's work. Liu triumphed in 1942 when the 36th Division was moved to the Yunnanese front, and Zhang was transferred back to Chongqing in 1946. Zhang's presence was replaced by He Guoguang, but Liu continued frustrating Nationalist centralization attempts. In 1944 during Operation Ichi-Go, there was once again talk of moving the capital to Xichang, encouraged by American General Wedermeyer, but this was abandoned after the Japanese offensive stalled. In late 1942, Chiang ordered Liu and Ma Bufang of Qinghai to mobilize for a campaign against Tibet. Liu was suspicious of the Nationalist leader's motivations, dispatching his chief of staff Wu Peiying (伍培英) to Chongqing to plan for the invasion and negotiate with Chiang. According to Liu's 1990 biography, he had asked for a fully-equipped division of 10,000 troops, cavalry, and engineers; another division to maintain order, winter equipment, around 10,000 yaks, additional food supplies, and a truck route from Sichuan to Xikang. Liu also requested that he take sole command of these reinforcements. Later archival documents would confirm Liu's suspicions that the campaign was a plot; once Liu had mobilized his forces, Chiang was to send 30,000 men under his personal command into Xikang and depose Liu. Due to Liu's stalling tactics as well as Allied pressure, the campaign did not materialize.
=== Bleeding time === Bleeding time was developed as a test of platelet function by Duke in 1910. Duke's test measured the time taken for bleeding to stop from a standardized wound in the ear lobe that was blotted every 30 seconds, considering less than 3 minutes as normal. Bleeding time has low sensitivity and specificity for mild to moderate platelet disorders and is no longer recommended for screening.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The mainstay of type 1 diabetes treatment is the regular injection of insulin to manage hyperglycemia. Subcutaneous injection using either a syringe multiple times a day, or with a continuous infusion insulin pump are necessary, adjusting dosages to account for food intake, blood glucose levels, and physical activity. The goal of treatment is to maintain blood sugar in a normal range—80–130 mg/dL (4.4–7.2 mmol/L) before a meal; <180 mg/dL (10.0 mmol/L) after—as often as possible. To achieve this, people with type 1 diabetes monitor their blood glucose levels at home. Around 83% of type 1 diabetics monitor their blood glucose by capillary blood testing: pricking the finger to draw a drop of blood, and determining blood glucose with a glucose meter. The American Diabetes Association recommends testing blood glucose around 6–10 times per day: before each meal, before exercise, at bedtime, occasionally after a meal, and any time someone feels the symptoms of hypoglycemia. 82% of people under 18 years old and 53% of those over 18 with type 1 diabetes use a continuous glucose monitor, a device with a filament under the skin that constantly measures glucose levels and communicates those levels to an external device as of 2025. Continuous glucose monitoring is associated with better blood sugar control than finger stick capillary blood testing alone; however, continuous glucose monitoring is much more expensive. Healthcare providers can also monitor someone's hemoglobin A1C levels, which reflect the average blood sugar over the last three months.
Given by subcutaneous injection in mice, estradiol is about 10-fold more potent than estrone and about 100-fold more potent than estriol. As such, estradiol is the main estrogen in the body, although the roles of estrone and estriol as estrogens are said not to be negligible.
=== Discontinued === Acolbifene/prasterone (dehydroepiandrosterone/acolbifene; DHEA/acolbifene; prasterone/acolbifene; Femivia) – combination of acolbifene (selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM)) and prasterone (dehydroepiandrosterone; DHEA) (androgen, other actions) – decreased libido [68] Alprostadil SEPA (prostaglandin E1 SEPA; alprostadil/soft enhancement of percutaneous absorption; Topiglan) – prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) agonist – erectile dysfunction [69] Alprostadil/lidocaine (NM02216; NM100061) – combination of alprostadil (prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) agonist) and lidocaine (sodium channel blocker, local anesthetic) – premature ejaculation [70] Amesergide (LY-237733; LY237733; LY-237,733) – serotonin 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B, and 5-HT2C receptor antagonist, other actions – erectile dysfunction, premature ejaculation [71] Apomorphine inhalation (VR-004; VR-040; VR-400) – non-selective dopamine receptor agonist, other actions – erectile dysfunction, female sexual dysfunction [72] Apomorphine intranasal – non-selective dopamine receptor agonist, other actions – erectile dysfunction [73] Avanafil (Razatus; Spedra; Stendra; TA-1790; Zepeed) – phosphodiesterase PDE5 inhibitor – female sexual dysfunction, premature ejaculation [74] BAY-604552 (BAY98-7081; sGC activator) – guanylate cyclase stimulant – erectile dysfunction [75] Bremelanotide (Rekynda; Vyleesi; PT-141) – melanocortin MC4 receptor agonist – erectile dysfunction [76] CP-866087 (CP-866,087) – μ-opioid receptor antagonist – female sexual dysfunction [77] DA-8031 (DA8031) – selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) – premature ejaculation [78] Dapoxetine (IMD dapoxetine; YHD-1044) – selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) – premature ejaculation [79] Delequamine (RS-15385; RS-15385197) – α2-adrenergic receptor antagonist – erectile dysfunction [80] Estradiol/testosterone transdermal (testosterone/estradiol transdermal) – combination of estradiol (estrogen) and testosterone (androgen) – female sexual dysfunction [81] GM-1485 (GPI-1485; NIL-A) – immunophilin modulator – erectile dysfunction [82] Heparin/lidocaine/sodium bicarbonate (alkalised lidocaine and heparin formulation; Hep-Lido-A compounded formulation; U-101; URG-101) – combination of heparin (Factor Xa inhibitor, thrombin inhibitor), lidocaine (sodium channel blocker, local anesthetic), and sodium bicarbonate (absorption enhancer) – dyspareunia [83] hMaxi-K gene therapy (pVAX/hSlo; URO-902) – gene transference – erectile dysfunction [84] INO-1001 (INO1001; Pardex) – poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitor – erectile dysfunction [85] LGD-2941 (LGD2941; LGD122941; LGD-122941) – selective androgen receptor modulator (SARM) – female sexual dysfunction, male sexual dysfunction [86] Melanotan II (MT-II; PT-14) – melanocortin receptor agonist – erectile dysfunction, male sexual dysfunction [87] Milnacipran (Dalcipran; F-2207; Impulsor; Ixel; Joncia; Midacipran; Midalcipran; Savella; TN-912; Toledomin) – serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) – vulvodynia [88] Nitroglycerin topical (Anogesic; Cellegesic; Rectiv; Rectogesic) – nitric oxide donor – dyspareunia, vulvodynia [89] NMI-870 – α2-adrenergic receptor antagonist, nitric oxide donor – erectile dysfunction, female sexual dysfunction [90] Oxytocin (oxytocin gel; oxytocin topical; Vagitocin) – oxytocin receptor agonist – atrophic vaginitis [91] Pagoclone (IP-456; Panex; RP-62955) – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator and nonbenzodiazepine/cyclopyrrolone – premature ejaculation [92] PF-446687 (PF-00446687; PF-446,687) – melanocortin MC4 receptor agonist – sexual function disorders [93] PF-592379 (PF-000592379; PF-592,379) – dopamine D3 receptor agonist – erectile dysfunction [94] Research programme: therapeutics - Re-Pharm (RP-0217; RP0217) – protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) inhibitor – sexual function disorders [95] [96] RO-0282425 (RO0282425) – melanocortin MC4 receptor agonist – erectile dysfunction [97] RTN-001 (KD-027; SLX-2101; SLx-2101) – phosphodiesterase PDE5 inhibitor – erectile dysfunction [98] SAR-407899 (SAR407899; SAR407899A) – Rho-associated kinase inhibitor – erectile dysfunction [99] Sertraline (Aremis; Besitran; CP-51974; CP-51974-01; Gladem; J Zoloft; Lustral; Serad; Serlain; Tatig; Zoloft) – selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) – premature ejaculation [100] Sildenafil (Revatio; Revatio IV; UK-92480; Viagra) – phosphodiesterase PDE5 inhibitor – female sexual dysfunction [101] Tadalafil (Adcirca; Cialis; GF-196960; IC-351; LY-450190; Zalutia) – phosphodiesterase PDE5 inhibitor – female sexual dysfunction [102] Tadalafil sublingual (APC-8000) – phosphodiesterase PDE5 inhibitor – erectile dysfunction [103] Tadalafil/tamsulosin (CKD-397; tamsulosin/tadalafil) – combination of tadalafil (phosphodiesterase PDE5 inhibitor) and tamsulosin (α1-adrenergic receptor antagonist) – erectile dysfunction [104] Tadalafil/tamsulosin (YBH-1603) – phosphodiesterase PDE5 inhibitor – erectile dysfunction [105] Testosterone topical (ESP-210) – androgen (androgen receptor agonist) – female sexual dysfunction [106] Testosterone transdermal (FemTestosterone TDS) – androgen (androgen receptor agonist) – female sexual dysfunction [107] Testosterone transdermal (Luramist; testosterone MDTS; testosterone transdermal spray) – androgen (androgen receptor agonist) – female sexual dysfunction [108] TEMPE (Topical Eutectic Mixture for Premature Ejaculation) – undefined mechanism of action – premature ejaculation [109] UK-357903 (UK-357,903) – phosphodiesterase PDE5 inhibitor – erectile dysfunction [110] UK-390957 (UK-390,957) – serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI) – premature ejaculation [111] UK-447841 (UK-447,841) – neprilysin inhibitor – female sexual dysfunction [112] VML-670 (VML670; CEB-1555) – serotonin 5-HT1A receptor agonist – female sexual dysfunction, male sexual dysfunction [113]
Vitamin D: insufficiency is common in diabetics. Observational studies show that serum vitamin D is inversely associated with biomarkers of diabetes; impaired insulin secretion, insulin resistance, and glucose intolerance. It has been suggested that vitamin D may induce beneficial effects on diabetic complications by modulating differentiation and growth of pancreatic β-cells and protecting these cells from apoptosis, thus improving β-cells functions and survival. In particular, vitamin D supplementation has been shown to have positive effects on people with type 1 diabetes. Vitamin D has also been suggested to act on immune system and modulate inflammatory responses by influencing proliferation and differentiation of different immune cells., Moreover, deficiency of vitamin D may contribute to diabetic complications by inducing hyperparathyroidism, since elevated parathyroid hormone levels are associated with reduced β-cells function, impaired insulin sensitivity, and glucose intolerance. Finally, vitamin D may reduce the risk of vascular complications by modulating lipid profile. Antioxidants may have beneficial effects on diabetic complications by reducing blood pressure, attenuating oxidative stress and inflammatory biomarkers, improving lipid metabolism, insulin-mediated glucose disposal, and by enhancing endothelial function. Vitamin C has been proposed to induce beneficial effects by two other mechanisms.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The letters BPC stand for body protection compound. The number 157 refers to a specific fragment designation from early work on gastric proteins. The full name is a label for a synthetic fifteen-amino-acid peptide rather than a naturally isolated drug.
No. The gastric protein is larger, while BPC-157 is a short fragment sequence. The peptide is produced synthetically for research use. The relationship is one of sequence origin, not chemical identity.
It is most often supplied as a lyophilized powder, frequently as the acetate salt. The powder is reconstituted with water or a buffer before use. Free-base and other salt forms also exist but are less common in catalogs.
It is a chain of fifteen amino acids, referred to as a pentadecapeptide. The sequence is Gly-Glu-Pro-Pro-Pro-Gly-Lys-Pro-Ala-Asp-Asp-Ala-Gly-Leu-Val. It corresponds to a fragment of a protein found in human gastric juice.